History of the Microwave Oven - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 4 Words: 1169 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Technology Essay Level High school Did you like this example? A Brief History of the Microwave Oven Like many of todays great inventions, the microwave oven was a by-product of another technology. It was during a radar-related research project around 1946 that Dr. Percy Spencer, a self-taught engineer with the Raytheon Corporation, noticed something very unusual. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "History of the Microwave Oven" essay for you Create order He was testing a new vacuum tube called a magnetron, when he discovered that the candy bar in his pocket had melted. This intrigued Dr. Spencer, so he tried another experiment. This time he placed some popcorn kernels near the tube and, perhaps standing a little farther away, he watched with an inventive sparkle in his eye as the popcorn sputtered, cracked and popped all over his lab. The next morning, Scientist Spencer decided to put the magnetron tube near an egg. Spencer was joined by a curious colleague, and they both watched as the egg began to tremor and quake. The rapid temperature rise within the egg was causing tremendous internal pressure. Evidently the curious colleague moved in for a closer look just as the egg exploded and splattered hot yolk all over his amazed face. The face of Spencer lit up with a logical scientific conclusion: the melted candy bar, the popcorn, and now the exploding egg, were all attributable to exposure to low-density microwave energy. Thus, if an egg can be cooked that quickly, why not other foods? Experimentation began Dr. Spencer fashioned a metal box with an opening into which he fed microwave power. The energy entering the box was unable to escape, thereby creating a higher density electromagnetic field. When food was placed in the box and microwave energy fed in, the temperature of the food rose very rapidly. Dr. Spence r had invented what was to revolutionize cooking, and form the basis of a multimillion dollar industry, the microwave oven. A Bit of Trivia: The Speedie Weenie Project In the spring of 1946, Percy Spencer and an associate, P.R. Hanson (Roly Hanson), were working on a secret project they called the Speedy Weenie. Muriel Withrow remembers the project well. She recalls, The Speedy Weenie Project was the nickname Mr. Spencer and my boss, Roly Hanson, gave to their secret project, the microwave [oven] Speedie Weenie meaning a quick hot dog!' (Our thanks to Mrs. Withrow for sharing this little known detail) Nearly 6 Feet Tall, Weighing 750 Pounds Engineers went to work on Spencers hot new idea, developing and refining it for practical use. By late 1946, the Raytheon Company had filed a patent proposing that microwaves be used to cook food. An oven that heated food using microwave energy was then placed in a Boston restaurant for testing. At last, in 1947, the first commercial microwave oven hit the market. These primitive units where gigantic and enormously expensive, standing 5 1/2 feet tall, weighing over 750 pounds, and costing about $5000 each. The magnetron tube had to be water-cooled, so plumbing installations were also required. Initial Reactions Were Unfavorable Not surprisingly, many were highly reluctant about these first units, and so they found only limited acceptance. Initial sales were disappointingbut not for long. Further improvements and refinements soon produced a more reliable and lightweight oven that was not only less expensive, but, with the development of a new air-cooled magnetron, there was no longer any need for a plumber. The microwave oven had reached a new level of acceptance, particularly with regard to certain industrial applications. By having a microwave oven available, restaurants and vending companies could now keep products refrigerator-fresh up to the point of service, then heat to order. The result? Fresher food, less waste, and money saved. New and Unusual Applications As the food industry began to recognize the potential and versatility of the microwave oven, its usefulness was put to new tests. Industries began using microwaves to dry potato chips and roast coffee beans and peanuts. Meats could be defrosted, precooked and tempered. Even the shucking of oysters was made easier by microwaves. Other industries found the diverse applications of microwave heating quite advantageous. In time, microwaves were being used to dry cork, ceramics, paper, leather, tobacco, textiles, pencils, flowers, wet books and match heads. The microwave oven had become a necessity in the commercial market and the possibilities seemed endless. The First Radarange In 1947, Raytheon demonstrated the worlds first microwave oven and called it a Radarange, the winning name in an employee contest. Housed in refrigerator-sized cabinets, the first microwave ovens cost between $2,000 and $3,000. Sometime between 1952-55, Tappan introduced the first home model priced at $1295. In 1965 Raytheon acquired Amana Refrigeration. Two years later, the first countertop, domestic oven was introduced. It was a 100-volt microwave oven, which cost just under $500 and was smaller, safer and more reliable than previous models. By 1975 Sales of Microwave Ovens Exceeded that of Gas Ranges Technological advances and further developments led to a microwave oven that was polished and priced for the consumer kitchen. However, there were many myths and fears surrounding these mysterious new electronic radar ranges. By the seventies, more and more people were finding the benefits of microwave cooking to outweigh the possible risks, and none of them were dying of radiation poisoning, going blind, sterile, or becoming impotent (at least not from using microwave ovens). As fears faded, a swelling wave of acceptance began filtering into the kitchens of America and other countries. Myths were melting away, and doubt was turning into demand. By 1975, sales of microwave ovens would, for the first time, exceed that of gas ranges. The following year, a reported 17% of all homes in Japan were doing their cooking by microwaves, compared with 4% of the homes in the United States the same year. Before long, though, microwave ovens were adorning the kitchens in over nine million hom es, or about 14%, of all the homes in the United States. In 1976, the microwave oven became a more commonly owned kitchen appliance than the dishwasher, reaching nearly 60%, or about 52 million U.S. households. Americas cooking habits were being drastically changed by the time and energy-saving convenience of the microwave oven. Once considered a luxury, the microwave oven had developed into a practical necessity for a fast-paced world. An expanding market has produced a style to suit every taste; a size, shape, and color to fit any kitchen, and a price to please almost every pocketbook. Options and features, such as the addition of convection heat, probe and sensor cooking, meet the needs of virtually every cooking, heating or drying application. Today, the magic of microwave cooking has radiated around the globe, becoming an international phenomenon. Inventor Spencer Doctor Spencer continued at Raytheon as a senior consultant until he died at the age of 76. At the time of his death, Dr. Spencer held 150 patents and was considered one of the worlds leading experts in the field of microwave energy, despite his lack of a high school education. On September 18, 1999, Dr. Percy LaBaron Spencer was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame and took his place in history alongside such great inventors as Thomas Edison, the Wright Brothers and George Washington Carver.

The Baroque Era - 848 Words

A’Miya Williams World History Since 1500 Professor Pinder 1 October 2015 Summative Essay The Baroque Era occurred from 1590 to 1725 AD in various parts of Europe. Its style was very different from its predecessor’s, the Renaissance, focus on antiquity. It was not until the Reformation that the Baroque style took its place in history as a momentous period. During the Reformation, people broke from the almighty Roman Catholic Church and created their own form of Christian faith, Protestantism. This Protestant movement took Europe and other countries by storm who either disagreed with the teachings and actions of the Catholic Church or who wanted to have more freedom in faith. To win back support and attract other cultures, the Roman Catholic Church decided to utilize Baroque art as an instrument for their own Counter Reformation. In this essay, the unique style and various types of Baroque art are argued to be an essential component in the success of the Counter Reformation. The Roman Catholic Church decided that in order to attract less educated people, biblical art had to be more attractive and emotional. The very essence of Baroque art is its realism, focus on expressionism and movement. The Church expanded upon the grandeur sense of Baroque art by producing â€Å"large scale works of public art, [like] monumental wall paintings and huge frescoes for the ceilings and vaults of palaces and churches† (â€Å"Baroque Art: Definition, Styles, History†). Rich colors with an emphasis onShow MoreRelatedBaroque And The Baroque Era732 Words   |  3 PagesI. Baroque (began around 1600-1750). A. The Baroque era began as artists were disgusted against the approach of Mannerist art. The Baroque art movement combines dramatic works of arts, beautiful details, and emotionally stimulating subject matter to give the viewer a powerful visual experience (Devlin, E. L. 2013) B. Artwork significant to the movement ïÆ' ¼ Merisi, M. (1601). â€Å"Caravaggio, Conversion of Saint Paul† [oil on canvas 7’ 6† x 5’ 9†]. Cerasi Chapel, Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome. InRead MoreThe Era Of The Baroque Era937 Words   |  4 PagesAccording to Greenberg (2009), the Baroque era is estimated to be the time period spanning from 1600 until 1750. The year of Sebastian Bach’s death, 1750 which is notably and associatively used as a timeline reference that ends this overly extravagant period of creativity. This timespan became an era of expressive exuberance of primal human emotions as secularization, the study of scientific reasoning and intellectual rationale characterized the societal environment. Religion no longer dominatedRead MoreBaroque Era2758 Words   |  12 PagesResearch Paper Done by: Alain Camous Professor Payne March 7, 2012 ENC 1102 Outline Baroque era was where the most important turn in music took place with its unique arts and its controversial styles to music in its time. I. Definition of Baroque Era A. Can mean different things 1. Bizarre 2. Flamboyant 3. Elaborately Ornamented. 4. Historians meaning a. Used to indicate the particular style in all different forms of art. B. Known as â€Å"the age ofRead MoreBaroque Music And The Baroque Era1366 Words   |  6 PagesBaroque music began in Italy and it spread to all other parts of Europe. The musical characters in the baroque era pursued interests in subjectivity of the observers and created a deep human feeling while composing their music (Harbison 22). This character of the baroque artists is depicted in several works done by Michelangelo. One of the pieces of art was campidoglio on the hill capitalino. The picture above takes the structure of a sculpture and it is placed in a three dimension space havingRead MoreBaroque Art And The Baroque Era2216 Words   |  9 PagesBaroque Ornamentation The use of ornamentation in Baroque music was a creative, and sometimes improvised outlet for period musicians that spurred from human instinct to manipulate melodic material. This urge to change melodic material by altering the rhythm, or melody can be seen throughout history. Music including Gregorian chant, which predates the Baroque era, contains some elements of ornamentation. It can be seen throughout the Baroque, Classical era, and even in modern music. Although improvisationRead More The Baroque Era Essays1269 Words   |  6 Pages THE BAROQUE AGE Social and Cultural Background nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Baroque is a term borrowed from the visual arts and one that is used in many different senses. The Baroque Era applies to the years between 1600 and 1750. The most famous composers of this time were Bach, Handel, Vivaldi and Teleman. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Politically it was an age of magnificent absolute Monarch’s. The most magnificent of all was Louis XIV of France. Louis ruled from 1634 until 1713. DuringRead MoreEssay on The Baroque Era904 Words   |  4 PagesThe Baroque Era â€Æ' Baroque music a style of western art music and was composed from approximately 1600s to 1750s. This era took place after the Renaissance era and before the Classical era. The word â€Å"baroque† is derived from the Portuguese barroco, or â€Å"oddly shaped pearl† (â€Å"About†). The term has been used a lot throughout the nineteenth century to describe the period. Some known music familiarities from the era are Pachelbel’s Canon and Vivaldi’s The Four Seasons. This era not only connectedRead MoreElements Of The Baroque Era1031 Words   |  5 PagesThe Baroque Era between 1600-1750, was an era that created creative styles and elements, which the Catholic Church took into favor. The Baroque also created a symbol of wealth that the Catholic Church took in creating new sculptures, paintings, and architecture. The Baroque Era emphasized political tension through Church, artistic beauty that would change the view of the church, and amazing architect ure that helped convey a theological vision inside the church. Background The Baroque Era began inRead MoreThe Baroque Era Of Music Essay2374 Words   |  10 PagesThe Baroque chamber orchestra, a type of ensemble today that can vary greatly from group to group, is involved in a type of performance many musicians remain confused about. For a modern musician, the confusion surrounding the Baroque style stems from a notion that spending time learning a style of instrument that is no longer commonplace is something that is not worthwhile or is even detrimental to a modern instrumental career. Much of this stems from the idea that the romantic era of music is theRead MoreThe Baroque Era And Neoclassicism1273 Words   |  6 Pagessuccessful artists from the Baroque period, produced several artworks that influence the art world even today. Likewise, Jacques-Louis David, an artist who is often considered to be the most important French Neoclassical painter, created paintings that yielded a movement which changed the course of art history. These artists, both fr om different regions and time periods, produced artwork that differed in many ways, namely in message, style, and intended audience. The Baroque era and Neoclassicism are separate

ALS Disease Psychological Aspects Free Essays

This paper explores the psychological profile of patients with Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Aside from the physical challenges experienced by patients, they also have to endure psychological changes such as depression and denial. There are several factors that may contribute to the psychosocial profile of a patient such as degree of severity, age, onset of disease, time span, and dependence on machines like respirator. We will write a custom essay sample on ALS Disease Psychological Aspects or any similar topic only for you Order Now This paper examines the psychological features of ALS patients and how it affects the family and support team. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), commonly known as Lou Gehrig’s disease is a progressive degenerative disease attacking the brain and spinal cord. The destruction of the nerve cells, called neurons, in the body’s upper and lower motor neurons leads to the inability of the voluntary muscles to function normally (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, 2008). With the death of the muscles, ALS patients will have impaired use of their arms and legs. Loss of control is the trademark of ALS. As the disease progresses, the patient will have trouble accomplishing day-to-day activities like eating, tooth brushing and putting on clothes (Olney, 2005, p. 8). Furthermore, the patient’s breathing will suffer and in the end, a ventilator will be needed (2005). Although the disease is debilitating, it does not impinge on the patient’s senses- sight, taste, and smell, hear and touch (2008). There are three diagnostic factors in ALS: clinical features such as â€Å"weakness and involuntary muscle contractions†, having positive results of electromyography (EMG), MRI and blood tests) and ruling out other disorders (Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Society of Canada, n. d. p. 1). Not only is the etiology of ALS unknown but there is also no cure for it, which makes the disease more frustrating. The drugs and treatments currently available are targeted only to mitigate ALS symptoms. Given the complexity of the disease, it is not surprising to find that ALS-afflicted patients endure physical symptoms as well as cognitive and behavioral changes like memory and speech problems and emotional distress (Levine, n. d. ). Another study reports the onset of depression and denial in ALS patients (Houpt, Gould, and Norris, 1977). Given the grim prognosis that accompanies the disease, there are ALS cases when the patient undergoes severe psychological/ social/ spiritual distress. After all, ALS is a â€Å"life-changing event for an individual and his/her loved ones† (Ciechoski, 2002, p. 9). Typically an individual facing the end of life undergoes what psychiatrist Elisabeth Kubler-Ross the five stages of dying: denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance (Morris and Maisto, 2002, p. 437). The same phases may also apply in patients with ALS (Ciechoski, 2002, p. 12). In an ALS Patient Profile project, it was found that ALS patients experience greater bouts with depression- 60% compared to the 16 -20% exhibited by the normal and fit population (McDonald, 1992). This can be construed as a sign that the ALS patient is overwhelmed with sadness, apathy and feelings of worthlessness. Depression, after all, is a normal reaction in individuals diagnosed with a life-threatening disease (Ciechoski, 2002, p. 15). Another study concurs with finding, adding that aside from depression; ALS patients are also more to go through denial as a response pattern (Houpt, Gould, and Norris, 1977). Denial, as Kubler-Ross suggests, is the first in a sequence people undertake as they await death. It means that the individual refuses to accept the diagnosis and swears that everything is all right. The study conducted by Drs. Houpt, Gould, and Norris reports that 22. 5 percent of ALS patients are â€Å"major deniers† (1977). Again, this is something common to an individual coping with changes. For example, an ALS patient may refrain using a wheelchair even though he/she is clearly demonstrating difficulty being mobile. It may take some time before the patient finally accepts the situation and resorts to using a wheelchair. However, this does denote giving up or succumbing to the disease but merely a sign that the patient is looking after his/ her well-being. In doing so, the patient will have a â€Å"sense of control† (p. 17). Yet, another research shows that ALS-afflicted patients suffer from behavioral instability- displaying polarity in emotions, from being overly reactive and exaggerated to being extremely reticent and dull (Levine, n. d. ). There is also an increased chance of the patient becoming withdrawn, becoming less interactive and shying away from interaction with others, as well as professing â€Å"lack of insight† (n. d. ). Likewise, the patient may start having troubles making decision. Decision making in a serious ailment such as ALS is crucial, thus is requires a great amount of â€Å"flexibility and creativity† (Ciechoski, 2002, p. 18). Among the issues that need to be addressed by the patient are living accommodations, employing caregiver services, use of ventilator and feeding tube, family and work life, and even the subject of creating a living will (p. 21). Decision making should be consulted with the family, medical and support group but ultimately it must be stressed that it is the patient that makes the final decision (p. 22). Despite the torrents of emotions experienced by the patient, it is not suffice to conclude that ALS patients have a predictable psychosocial profile. There have been studies indicating that some ALS patients only go through mild depression or none at all (McDonald, 1992). There are several factors that contribute to the psychosocial profile of an ALS patient- the onset of the disease, age of acquisition, seriousness of ALS, extent of the disease, reliance on respirator and other medical machines, and rate of deterioration (1992). It was found that the onset of the symptoms do no factor in the patient’s psychosocial status (1992). It will also be a factor when there are unresolved issues on the patient’s part prior to diagnosis. On the other hand, age contributes to the patient’s well-being. ALS patients that are diagnosed during late adulthood (over 65 years old) tend to be more depressed and hopeless than those diagnosed in their younger years (1992). While ALS may not primarily be the root of depression, if one is to follow Kubler-Ross’ stages of dying, depression is a normal reaction when the subject of end-of-life id talked. An ALS diagnosis will only aggravate the fear. In addition, when a patient exhibits an acute presentation of ALS, the probability of it affecting the individual’s psychosocial status intensifies. The same assumption, on the other hand, does not apply to the length of ALS. When one is faced with ALS, the prognosis is grim, giving the patient a time life of 3-5 years (1992). However, current data shows that there are ALS patients, roughly 18-42%, outliving the five year mark (1992). Thus, it can be deduced that it is not age but the patient’s will and family support that help him/her uplift his/her psychosocial welfare. When an ALS patient suffers rapid deterioration, his/ her psychosocial profile is also affected. Furthermore, it was found that the longer the patient has been diagnosed with ALS, the more distressed he/she can be (1992). The same is applied to patients whose symptoms have worsened, thus have the need to rely on respirators and other machines. Such individuals may feel more helpless, affecting their attitudes and behaviors. As with any illness, ALS affects relationships- between spouses, siblings, children, friends, family, colleagues and other support system. Family, especially first-degree members are inclined to report periods of depression and denial (McDonald, 1992). One study reports that an astounding 47% of spouses experience stress during an ALS diagnosis (1992). An ALS diagnosis changes the role play in a family, sometimes the wife become the breadwinner or the children take on the role of main caretaker, depending on who gets ill. Aside from family, the patients’ relationship with friends and work colleagues may also suffer, depending on the degree of closeness experienced. Furthermore, the patient’s relationship with the health care professional is important. The better the line of communication between the patient and the health care team, the better outcome there will be. The health care professional may help the patient deal with depression by prescribing medication and counselling, whichever is appropriate. The psychological characteristics of ALS patients vary in patients. Some may be depressed while others may be hopeful. Coping with a difficult illness like ALS is difficult not only for the patient but the family and support group as well. Worsening of symptoms may hinder their psychological well-being. Thus, it is important for everybody concerned to remember that ALS is a disease not to be battled alone. With help and support from everyone involved, patients will be able to live full lives. References Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Society of Canada. (n. d. ). A guide to all ALS patient care for primary care physicians [PDF file]. Retrieved Mary 12, 2009 from Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Society of Canada Website: http://www. als. ca Ciechoski, M. (2002). Coping with change [PDF file]. Retrieved May 12, 2009 from The ALS Association Website: http://www. alsa. org/files/cms/Resources/ALS_manual2. pdf. Houpt, J. , Gould, B. and Norris, F. (1977). Psychological characteristics of patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) [PDF file]. Retrieved May 12, 2009 from Psychosomatic Medicine Website: http://www. psychosomaticmedicine. org. Levine, S. W. (n. d. ). Neurocognitive, behavioral and psychological changes associated with ALS [PDF file]. Retrieved May 12, 2009 from ALS Connection Website: http://www. alsconnection. com/Neurocognitive_Testing_vers_2. pdf McDonald, E. (1992). Psychological aspects of ALS patients and their primary caregivers. Retrieved May 12, 2009 from American Holistic Health Association Website: http://www. ahha. org/articles/McDonald2. htm Morris, C. and Maisto, A. (2002). Psychology an introduction 11th ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (2008). NINDS amyotrophic lateral sclerosis information page. Retrieved May 12, 2009 from National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke Website: http://www. ninds. nih. gov/ Olney, A. (2005). Daily activities made easier for people with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis [PDF file]. Retrieved May 12, 2009 from The ALS Association Website: http://www. alsa. org/files/cms/Resources/OT_Manual_2006. pdf. How to cite ALS Disease Psychological Aspects, Papers

China free essay sample

But I felt more than a little out of place. At one point, Father Graeme intervened, saying that there was someone by a nearby fountain whom I would certainly want to meet. She turned out to be a trim, well-appointed young woman who, he explained, was an attorney-but more of the activist kind. She works for a founda ­ tion that provides legal support for anti-poverty groups in London. Youll probably have a lot to talk about. We chatted. She told me about her job. I told her I had been involved for many years with the global justice movement-anti ­ globalization movement, as it was usually called in the media. She was curious: shed of course read a lot about Seattle, Genoa, the tear gas and street battles, but . . . well, had we really accomplished any ­ thing by all of that? Actually, I said, I think its kind of amazing how much we did manage to accomplish in those first couple of years. 2 DEBT For example? Well, for example, we managed to almost completely destroy the IMF. As it happened, she didnt actually know what the IMF was, so I offered that the International Monetary Fund basically acted as the worlds debt enforcers-You might say, the high-finance equivalent of the guys who come to break your legs. I launched into historical background, explaining how, during the 7os oil crisis, OPEC coun ­ tries ended up pouring so much of their newfound riches into Western banks that the banks couldnt figure out where to invest the money; how Citibank and Chase therefore began sending agents around the world trying to convince Third World dictators and politicians to take out loans (at the time, this was called go-go banking ) ; how they started out at extremely low rates of interest that almost immediately skyrocketed to 20 percent or so due to tight U. S. money policies in the early 8os; how, during the 8os and 9os, this led to the Third World debt crisis; how the IMF then stepped in to insist that, in order to obtain refinancing, poor countries would be obliged to abandon price supports on basic foodstuffs, or even policies of keeping strategic food reserves, and abandon free health care and free education; how all of this had led to the collapse of all the most basic supports for some of the poorest and most vulnerable people on earth. I spoke of poverty, of the looting of public resources, the collapse of societies, endemic violence, malnutrition, hopelessness, and broken lives. But what was your position? the lawyer asked. About the IMF? We wanted to abolish it. No, I mean, about the Third World debt. Oh, we wanted to abolish that too. The immediate demand was to stop the IMF from imposing structural adjustment policies, which were doing all the direct damage, but we managed to accomplish that surprisingly quickly. The more long-term aim was debt amnesty. Some ­ thing along the lines of the biblical Jubilee. As far as we were con ­ cerned, I told her, thirty years of money flowing from the poorest countries to the richest was quite enough. But, she objected, as if this were self-evident, theyd borrowed the money! Surely one has to pay ones debts. It was at this point that I realized this was going to be a very dif ­ ferent sort of conversation than I had originally anticipated. Where to start? I could have begun by explaining how these loans had originally been taken out by unelected dictators who placed most of it directly in their Swiss bank accounts, and ask her to contemplate the justice of insisting that the lenders be repaid, not by the dictator, O N TH E EXP E R I E N C E OF M O RAL C O N FU S I O N 3 or even by his cronies, but by literally taking food from the mouths of hungry children. Or to think about how many of these poor countries had actually already paid back what theyd borrowed three or four times now, but that through the miracle of compound interest, it still hadnt made a significant dent in the principal. I could also observe that there was a difference between refinancing loans, and demanding that in order to obtain refinancing, countries have to follow some or ­ thodox free-market economic policy designed in Washington or Zurich that their citizens had never agreed to and never would, and that it was a bit dishonest to insist that countries adopt democratic constitutions and then also insist that, whoever gets elected, they have no control over their countrys policies anyway. Or that the economic policies imposed by the IMF didnt even work. But there was a more basic problem: the very assumption that debts h ave to be repaid. Actually, the remarkable thing about the statement one has to pay ones debts is that even according to standard economic theory, it isnt true. A lender is supposed to accept a certain degree of risk. If all loans, no matter how idiotic, were still retrievableif there were no bankruptcy laws, for instancethe results would be disastrous. What reason would lenders have not to make a stupid loan? Well, I know that sounds like common sense, I said, but the funny thing is, economically, thats not how loans are actually sup ­ posed to work. Financial institutions are supposed to be ways of direct ­ ing resources toward profitable investments. If a bank were guaranteed to get its money back, plus interest, no matter what it did, the whole system wouldnt work. Say I were to walk into the nearest branch of the Royal Bank of Scotland and say You know, I just got a really great tip on the horses. Think you could lend me a couple million quid? Obviously theyd just laugh at me. But thats just because they know if my horse didnt come in, thered be no way for them to get the money back. But, imagine there was some law that said they were guaranteed to get their money back no matter what happens, even if that meant, I dont know, selling my daughter into slavery or harvesting my organs or something. Well, in that case, why not? Why bother waiting for someone to walk in who has a viable plan to set up a laundromat or some such? Basically, thats the situation the IMF created on a global level-which is how you could have all those banks willing to fork over billions of dollars to a bunch of obvious crooks in the first place. I didnt get quite that far, because a t about that point a drunken financier appeared, having noticed that we were talking about money, and began telling funny stories about moral hazard-which somehow, 4 DEBT before too long, had morphed into a long and not particularly engross ­ ing account of one of his sexual conquests. I drifted off. Still, for several days afterward, that phrase kept resonating in my head. Surely one has to pay ones debts. T he reason its s o powerful is that its not actually an economic statement: its a moral statement. After all, isnt paying ones debts what morality is supposed to be all about? Giving people what is due them. Accepting ones responsibilities. Fulfilling ones obligations to others, just as one would expect them to fulfill their obligations to you. What could be a more obvious example of shirking ones responsibili ­ ties than reneging on a promise, or refusing to pay a debt? It was that very apparent self-evidence, I realized, that made the statement so insidious. This was the kind of line that could make ter ­ rible things appear utterly bland and unremarkable. This may sound strong, but its hard not to feel strongly about such matters once youve witnessed the effects. I had. For almost two years, I had lived in the highlands of Madagascar. Shortly before I arrived, there had been an outbreak of malaria. It was a particularly virulent outbreak because malaria had been wiped out in highland Madagascar many years be ­ fore, so that, after a couple of generations, most people had lost their immunity. The problem was, it took money to maintain the mosquito eradication program, since there had to be periodic tests to make sure mosquitoes werent starting to breed again and spraying campaigns if it was discovered that they were. Not a lot of money. But owing to IMF ­ imposed austerity programs, the government had to cut the monitoring program. Ten thousand people died. I met young mothers grieving for lost children. One might think it would be hard to make a case that the loss of ten thousand human lives is really justified in order to ensure that Citibank wouldnt have to cut its losses on one irresponsible loan that wasnt particularly important to its balance sheet anyway. But here was a perfectly decent woman-one who worked for a charitable organization, no less-who took it as self-evident that it was.